Which of the Following Cultural Values Can Affect Employee Participation in Decision Making?

Introduction

Competitiveness, the incertitude of the economic environs, and socio-cultural changes have resulted in modern, diverse and flexible organizations. In this context, new management styles characterized past the participation of employees in the controlling process have emerged.

At that place is a growing consensus amidst Hour researchers and professionals that a participative environs tin heighten employees' task satisfaction, commitment, motivation and productivity (Zhu et al., 2015; Goñi-Legaz and Ollo-López, 2017) and create innovative workplaces, which are beneficial for both employees and employers (Wouters and Wilderom, 2008). Participative management is known by many names, including shared leadership, employee empowerment, employee interest, participative decision making (PDM), dispersed leadership, open-volume direction, and industrial democracy (Steinheider et al., 2006). This study focuses on PDM, which can be defined as the extent to which employers permit or encourage employees to share or participate in organizational decision making (Probst, 2005). There are basically two mutual forms (direct and indirect) of employee PDM that have been widely discussed in the literature (Heller et al., 1998; Markey et al., 2001; Harley et al., 2005). This article focuses on direct employee PDM, which refers to the participation of an individual or group of employees in the determination-making process in the workplace (Bratton and Gilded, 2003). The effects of directly employee PDM accept been studied extensively in the last few decades (Wallace, 1995; Jones and Kato, 2003; Cox et al., 2006; Boxall and Purcell, 2010). However, the analysis of their determinants has begun to attract relevance only recently (Esser and Olsen, 2011; Gallie, 2013; Lopes et al., 2017). Precisely one of the purpose of this study is to measure out the employee PDM in European companies and to advance in the identification and understanding of the internal and external factors that influence direct employee PDM.

Does the Gender Affect to PDM?

The role of the managing director as a starting betoken for the inclusion of employees in PMD has been demonstrated (Tangirala and Ramanujam, 2012). Previous studies have found a significant relationship between perceived supervisor support (PSS) and employee PDM (Allen, 1992; Hutchison, 1997; Langan-Play tricks et al., 2002; Allen et al., 2003; Reeves et al., 2012). Therefore, this report tries to ratify whether this human relationship is currently valid in the European context. In addition, we are interested in analyzing this human relationship from a gender perspective because studies on this topic remain limited (Shaed and Ishak, 2015). Although it seems male and female person leaders can differ in how they promote direct employee PDM, the findings are not conclusive. For case, Eagly and Johnson (1990) suggest that females managers tend to promote a participative surroundings. In that location are also studies that conclude that women evidence more supportive behavior toward the programs that have been introduced past their organization compared to men (Collom, 2000). In contrast, some studies, such as those conducted by Sukirno and Siengthai (2011), conclude no pregnant difference betwixt gender and participation. Beyond managerial stereotypes, some studies take analyzed gender from employee perspectives. Some of them confirm significant differences betwixt men and women in participation (Olorunsola and Olayemi, 2011; Miller, 2012; Sarafidou and Chatziioannidis, 2013). Most of these studies find that women participate less in decision making than men (Markey et al., 2002; De Acedo Lizárraga et al., 2007; Chalchissa and Emnet, 2013). Therefore, one of the primary objectives and contributions of this written report is the analysis of the influence of the gender of both managers and employees in straight employee PDM, aiming to deepen the enquiry on this topic and clarify the confusion aroused by previous studies.

How Cultural Values Affect to PDM?

It is known that national cultural values accept an influence over organizations (Hofstede, 1984). This paper explains the relation between direct employee participation and 2 of cultural dimensions identified past Hofstede (1984), ability altitude and masculinity. Ability distance is defined equally "the extent to which the less powerful members of the institutions and organizations of a land wait and take that power is unevenly distributed" (Hofstede, 1984). The literature shows that at that place are societal cultural differences in how individuals behave in situations of power difference (Rao and Pearce, 2016). In countries of high ability distance, employees are afraid to express opinions that differ from those of managers. Several authors take argued that in organizations with a high level of ability altitude, employees tend to exist passive in the decision-making process (Khatri, 2009). In contrast, a low power altitude means there is a small altitude betwixt employees and manager such that they collaborate at work and have a preference for making decisions throughout consultation.

Most relevant studies on cultural values and participation focus on ability distance and uncertainty avoidance. In contrast, few empirical studies have been done on masculinity and employee participation. Assuming the relevance of gender, the current study aims to fill this gap in the literature. Masculinity, ane of the culture dimensions studied past Hofstede, is a value that affects the relationship between roles at work and gender. Women are warm, sensitive, and caring in their domestic office, even though they are increasingly enervating occupational roles. Correspondingly, men are considered believing and competitive, and they tend to demand leadership roles (Bosak et al., 2018). Consequent with this principle, direct employee PDM could exist unlike co-ordinate to the feminine or masculine culture of the country where companies are located.

The analysis of the direct influence of cultural values in the PDM, also as the moderating office of the PSS in this relationship, is another contribution of this paper. In add-on, this allows identifying which European countries promote more (and less) the direct employee participation in making decisions and comparing this ranking with that regarding the analyzed culture dimensions of Hofstede.

The empirical assay is based upon the Sixth European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS; Eurofound, 2016) carried out on virtually 44,000 workers belonging to organizations located in 35 European countries. (A more detailed explanation will be offered at 3.1).

The commodity is structured as follows. After the introduction, the second department defines the concept of direct employee participation (PDM). The third section provides the theoretical arguments that ground the expectations and hypotheses on PDM' micro- and macro-level determinants. The information and the definition of the dependent and contained variables of the fitted hierarchical regression model are included in the 4th section. Next, the fifth section analyses the results, and, finally, the sixth section includes the word of the results and the limitations of the study.

Literature Review and Hypothesis

Direct Employee Participation in Decision Making Process (PDM)

Employee participation includes all the practices adult in organizations that allow employees to participate in the decision-making process (Gónzalez, 2009; Miller, 2012). It can take the form of a diversity of management practices, such every bit participative management, empowerment and employee involvement. Moreover, participation may be direct or indirect (Markey et al., 2001; Harley et al., 2005). Indirect employee participation is the involvement of employee representatives in decision-making processes, whereas direct employee participation describes directly interaction between managers and employees. Therefore, directly participation involves the employees themselves, whereas indirect participation occurs through an intermediary of employee representative bodies, such as work councils or trade unions (Cabrera et al., 2003). According to the definition of Eurofound (2015), direct participation can be defined as "opportunities which direction provide, or initiatives to which they lend their support, at workplace level, for consultation with and/or delegation of responsibilities and authority for decision making to their subordinates either as individuals or every bit groups of employees, relating to the immediate piece of work tasks, piece of work organization and/or working conditions." Hence, this blazon of participation is encouraged by managers, whereas indirect participation is related to involvement in decisions through representative organisms that are selected by employees (Wilkinson et al., 2010). The current written report focuses on direct employee PDM and, consequently, on the influence of managers' attitudes in that participation.

Straight Employee PDM and Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)

Decision-making per se is a process linked to authority and power in organizations, so whoever has the ability is the person who ultimately exercises decision-making. Co-ordinate to Martín and Quintanilla (1999), participation encompasses the different ways in which ability is distributed in an organization, understanding ability as the ability to exert influence. In autocratic organizations in which managers practice monitoring and control over employees, managers exercise decision-making power. Fear of losing that power and distrust of employees' criteria for differentiating personal goals from organizational ones are the primary reasons why managers practice not permit employees to make decisions (Mishra and Morrissey, 1990). Over time, organizations take evolved into participatory models in which managers involve employees in controlling through the distribution of power.

The main driver of this change is trust. As Spreitzer and Mishra (1999) conclude, trust has replaced older models of supervision and control, causing managers to involve employees in the company's decision-making. It is precisely in this trusted surroundings where the manager believes that employees decide on organizational goals with the basis of being competent and making good decisions (Morgan and Zeffane, 2003). In addition, Tan and Tan (2000) recognize perceived organizational support (POS) as a precedent for trust, which marks the relationship between employees and the organization. POS theory broadly analyses the relationship betwixt employees' global beliefs and the organization (Eisenberger et al., 2002). When employees are involved in the controlling process, they perceive organizational support (Wayne et al., 2002; Park, 2015; Ding and Shen, 2017). Accordingly, employee participation tin can be perceived as a sign of organizational commitment to employees. In fact, Patriota (2009) explains that employee participation is directly or indirectly related to POS. POS and PSS are concepts that are positively associated (Armstrong-Stassen and Cameron, 2003). Given that supervisors represent organizations, employees could POS from their supervisor. As reported by Maertz et al. (2007), employees build their relationship with managers on the basis of how they value their contributions. In this respect, previous findings reveal a positive relationship between PSS and trust in supervisors (Stinglhamber et al., 2006).

Simultaneously, based on social substitution theory, employees value recognition and fair treatment, whereas supervisors value performance and loyalty (Paillé et al., 2013). Given that affidavit, the supervisor plays a crucial role in participation if the leader-fellow member exchange (LMX) approach is considered. Erdogan and Enders (2007) points that LMX is the nearly appropriate theory to explicate how leaders and supervisors influence employees. This theory assumes that managers create different kinds of relationships with subordinates in terms of an commutation (Meiners and Boster, 2012). In high LMX, supervisors create social exchanges with trust, whereas lower LMX is featured by a minimal level of back up. Previous researchers observe that this supervisor-subordinate combination has a positive impact on employee involvement in participation (Torka et al., 2010).

Therefore, PSS is considered by the current study every bit a micro variable that determines direct employee participation.

As a effect, the following is expected:

H1: PSS by employees is positively related to their direct PDM.

Employee PDM and Gender

The gender perspective is included in this study at two different points of view. On i hand, direct PDM is analyzed from the perspective of the employees' gender. This analysis will let us to verify whether the participation of women in making decisions at workplace is lower than that apropos men, which would corroborate the existence of a situation of inequality even in the 21st century. This measurement of inequality between men and women is a novelty in the literature and ane of the contributions of this report. The gender gap in a workplace context is usually related to differences in wages (gender pay gap) (Ziderman, 2014) and the number of women in decision-making positions and is not often related to the level of straight participation in making decisions. This leads to the formulation of the 2nd hypothesis:

H2: Female person employees have lower straight PDM than men.

On the other hand, the influence of the manager's gender is studied assuming its part every bit a promoter of directly employee participation. This perspective is also of interest for ii main reasons. The first is the relevant papers on women in management. According to a study from Eurostat (2017), in the European Matrimony, women continue assuming responsibleness function in organizations (although the number of women in direction positions is even so lower than men). 2nd, conforming to Cuadrado et al. (2015) female managers often larn participatory and democratic management styles compared to men. The creation of a participative environs is typical of transformational leadership (Zulfqar et al., 2016). Information technology means a transformational leader promotes the involvement of employees in the controlling process. Some authors reason that a transformational leadership manner is associated with the female gender role (Pounder and Coleman, 2002; Wolfram and Gratton, 2014). In this sense, according to Druskat (1994), women value connectedness, collaboration and discussion, final that female managers showroom significantly more transformational leadership behaviors and significantly fewer transactional leadership behaviors than male leaders. Consequent with this affirmation, female managers pb in a participatory mode and encourage others to participate in conclusion making. Concerning the characteristics of managers toward participation, women are considered every bit a paternalistic figure that protects and creates circles of trust and collaboration amongst employees (Melero, 2011). In addition, female person manager are expected to be more inclusive and encourage employees to limited their ideas. This feature gives rise to a third hypothesis:

H3: Employees managed by women have a higher direct PDM than those managed past men.

Previous studies analyze the relationship betwixt managers and employees in terms of gender. O'Leary and Ryan (1994) found that women employees expect their female managers to be more understanding and more giving than men. Besides, a study past Cuadrado et al. (2015) shows that female person employees tended to rate their female managers as more than effective. Similarly, they found that the gender dyad association betwixt employees and managers was stronger among females versus males. In contrast, other research points to the queen bee phenomenon. This is a derogatory label given to women managers. According to this idea, women managers pursue individual success in male-dominated work settings and tend to create distance with other woman peers (Kanter, 1987; Derks et al., 2016). In other words, women managers do not support women employees in particular. To shed light on this opposite ideas, this paper explores how participation is affected by PSS according to the managing director-employee gender dyad limerick.

H4: Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS) has a unlike impact on direct employee PDM according to the manager-employee gender dyad.

Direct Employee PDM and National Cultural Values: External Context

Research on cross-cultural management (Gelfand et al., 2007; Tsui et al., 2007) indicates that the extent to which people in organizations concur cultural values and beliefs determines the way in which employees react to aspects of their work. According to Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), "culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and specially their fastened values" (p. 181). Sagie and Aycan (2003) propose that civilisation explains and determines reason, essence, issues and people involved in the decision. The latter 2 points are critical for this study. The same authors explicate that civilization determines the way to understand PDM for both employees and managers. From the wide range of cultural dimensions studied by Hofstede, this framework is based on two: power distance and masculinity/feminity.

Ability altitude is divers as "the extent to which the less powerful members of the institutions and organizations of a country expect and accept that power is unevenly distributed" (Hofstede, 1984). That is, individuals of a culture with a small-scale distance to power recognize working in decentralized organizations where they are consulted by their superiors and treated as equals (Ortega et al., 2001). In contrast, countries with a high power distance have a very centralized leadership and take a very autocratic management style (Hofstede, 1984) that leaves fiddling autonomy to workers. Thus, a large distance to power corresponds to organizations in which the number of hierarchical levels is meaning (Sui Pheng and Yuquan, 2002), since they class the basis of formal power. Jaeger (1986) notes that the high distance between hierarchical levels sometimes causes individuals of dissimilar levels to resist working together, thereby conditioning the creation of work teams. The same hierarchical differentiation causes the advice flow to occur but vertically and downstream from the dome to the lower levels.

In organizations with a depression ability distance, advice betwixt manager and employee is more open, which translates into a loftier level of participation and therefore joint controlling. This is considering employees of depression-power organizations are more likely to have direct contact with their managers. Conversely, if the altitude becomes greater, employees will work independently of the managers. With this, contact is reduced, and the possibilities of co-determination tend to decrease (Białas, 2009). Furthermore, previous researchers take indicated that women tend to see the world and organizations every bit a flat structure, whereas men place hierarchical relationships (Ayman et al., 2009).

Following gender differentiation, countries with a high level of masculinity brand differentiation between male and female responsibilities. In this sense, women are related to house responsibilities and men are able to develop a career (Hofstede et al., 2008). Masculinity values assume that gender has an touch on in the workplace. According to Newman and Nollen (1996) in male organizations, men are primarily interested in performance, profits and recognition; in women, there is an interest in relationships. Hofstede (1984) explains that women tend to "humanize" the job, promoting cooperation. Additionally, aggressiveness is the most best-selling characteristic in highly masculinity-oriented companies (Ohlsson and Odelj, 2007). In this sense, information technology could exist said that female organizations promote a more participative environment than male person organizations.

The present study aims to understand if direct employee PDM promoted by organizations is linked to the cultural dimensions of the country in which they are located. Thus, the following hypotheses are established:

H5: The greater the power distance in the culture where the organization is located, the lower the level of direct employee PDM.

H6: The college the level of masculinity in the culture where the organizations is located, the lower the level of direct employee PDM.

In the literature, some studies analyze the cultural values at the individual level as a moderator variable of POS (Farh et al., 2007). Considering that the dimensions described to a higher place affect organizational practices in a general way, this paper goes 1 step ahead by trying to demonstrate that PSS is a micro variable that corrects the impact from cultural dimensions.

A written report on the Chinese hotel industry (Humborstad et al., 2008) indicates that perceived supervisor and organizational support (between other variables) act as a moderator between empowerment and the quality of delivery service in a traditionally high-power-altitude culture. Moreover, Park (2015) demonstrated that POS mediated the human relationship between employee participation and organizational commitment. Considering the moderator effect of PSS, this research attempts to evaluate the corrector consequence of PSS over power distance.

H7: Perceived supervisor Back up has a moderating event on the influence of the power distance dimension on direct employee PDM.

Patently, women and men are very similar in their leadership styles, but females ofttimes have a larger supporting role (Gregory, 1990). The gender roles can and then account for the variation in the use of PSS and its relation with masculinity/feminity values, but previous research has not addressed this issue. From this side, it is expected that the gender of the supervisor providing support has an effect on prior values where the organization is located.

H8: Perceived supervisor back up has a moderating effect on the influence of the masculinity dimension on direct employee PDM.

Data and Summary Statistics

The testing of previously formulated hypotheses involved a three-stage process. Beginning, a cistron analysis was carried out to obtain the values of the variables related to employees (direct PDM and PSS). Second, descriptive and inferential statistics analysis were carried out in gild to justify the choice of the variables used to predict the PDM. In addition, thirdly, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was applied to explicate direct employee PDM by PSS at a first level (employee) and the national cultural values (Ability distance and Masculinity) at a second level (land). The gender of the employees and their managers was included in the analysis as a control variable. The data assay procedure was conducted using the 25th version of SPSS statistic software.

Definition of the Sample

The analyses are based upon the 6th European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS; Eurofound, 2016) carried out by Eurofound. Nearly 44,000 workers were interviewed in 35 countries: the 28 Eu Member States, the v Eu candidate countries, and Norway and Switzerland. Its findings provide detailed data of bug such as concrete and psychosocial risks, work organization, work–life balance, and wellness and well-being. In each country, a multistage stratified random sampling design was used.

Since the objective of this written report is to analyze direct PDM by employees (no managers), as well equally the role of their supervisors' supporting in this participation, the cases related to managers were identified and later removed from the original database. The final sample includes 26,079 employees with information near the gender of them and of their bosses. According to the contingency table (Table ane), the proportion of male and female person employees is practically the aforementioned (l.4 and 49.6%). However, the gender of their managers is more often than not male person (68.ii% of male managers vs. 31.70% of female person managers). A hypothesis test was carried out to ratify that proportion of men in managerial positions is significantly greater than that of women (p-value = 0.000 when testing the aught hypothesis that the proportion of men in management positions is 50% against the alternative that it is greater). These figures are close to the information published past Eurostat (2017), extracted from the four-yearly structure of earnings survey for reference year 2014. According to these statistics, at the European union level, approximately a third (35%) of managers are women. This figure denotes that there is all the same a way to become to achieve equal opportunities for men and women in the workplace in the European context.

Table 1. Contingency table of gender dyad (manager-employee) composition.

If the gender of both employees and their managers is considered, 65% of male managers work with male employees (so simply 35% of them manage female employees). Regarding employees managed by women, only 19% are men (compared to 80% of women). Therefore, in most of the cases observed, the gender of employees and bosses coincides. This relationship was ratified with a Chi-square exam (p-value = 0.000, so the goose egg hypothesis of independence between the gender of employees and their managers was rejected). Moreover Phi coefficient was computed (0.42) showing a moderate and significant (sig. = 0.000) relationship between both genders.

Measurement of Variables

Dependent Variable: Straight Employee PDM

The survey contains several relevant questions providing data about direct employee participation in making conclusion (PDM). Concretely, employees are asked virtually eight questions related to their participation in making decisions about the club of their tasks, their methods of work, the speed or rate of work, improving the work organization, choosing their work colleagues, applying their own ideas, influencing important decisions and existence consulted earlier objectives are set. Cronbach'southward blastoff was computed in guild to measure the internal consistency of these eight items used to mensurate the construct "Participation." The value of alpha was 0.814 and then information technology ratifies a good internal consistency. In addition, the Cronbach alpha coefficient was reduced if any of the elements considered was removed from the reliability assay. A factor analysis was carried out based on these eight survey questions, specifically, primary component analysis. The results ratified that factorial analysis was appropriated (Bartlett's Test of Sphericity, sig. 0.00, and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.864, so greater than 0.75). Two components were plant that explained 63% of the total variance. This fact ratifies the theoretical classification of direct PDM into two categories: individual job discretion and organizational participation (Inanc et al., 2015). The first component (which explains 36% of the total variance) is associated with employee involvement in the work organization, the possibility of applying their own ideas and the influence in important decisions, that is, the organizational level. The 2d component (27% of the total variance) is associated with how employees can make determination related to his/her own piece of work, that is, individual task discretion. The scores of each component for each participant were obtained by the regression method. Thus, the linear combination of these gene scores weighted by their contribution to the variance became the last value of the dependent variable. Therefore, this study defines the direct employee PDM construct over both concepts (strategic and operational levels).

Independent Variables: PSS and National Cultural Values

Perceived supervisor support by interviewed employees was considered the independent variable in the hierarchical regression model in the beginning phase at the company level. Later, at the country level, indexes regarding power distance and masculinity were added.

Perceived supervisor support tin be defined equally employees' general opinion apropos the caste to which supervisors value their contributions and care about their well-existence (Eisenberger et al., 2002). It was measured through gene analysis, using six questions of the survey related to this aspect. Employees were asked if they received respect, praise and recognition, useful feedback, encouragement, support and help from their dominate. In this case, only one component explained 63% of the variance. The Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.878, so in that location is a good internal consistency of the six items used to mensurate the dimension "Perceived Supervisor Back up." In addition, this coefficient was reduced if whatever of the elements considered was removed from the reliability analysis.

For the country level, the indexes of the cultural values of power distance and masculinity provided past Hofstede (1984) were considered^ane.

Control Variable: The Gender

Several authors have suggested that the gender of one's boss is an important control variable in directly participation research (Gregory, 1990; Cuadrado et al., 2015). It has been argued previously (see department "Employee PDM and Gender") that the gender of the boss defines the leadership fashion (Newman and Nollen, 1996; Ohlsson and Odelj, 2007; Melero, 2011). Therefore, this paper considers the effect of gender in employee participation. In particular, the gender of both employees and managers was included as control variables in the regression model to explain the relationship between the variables previously described.

Descriptive and Inferential Analysis

Direct employee PDM and PSS values obtained past factor analysis were ranked between 0 and ane to make its interpretation easier. Descriptive statistics (Mean and Standard Difference) for both variables are reported in Table ii, as well as the results of an inferential analysis (independent sample t-test).

Table ii. Descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing according to the gender of employees.

For example, regarding direct employee PDM, the statistics bespeak that female person employees participate less, on average, than male employees (0.5528 vs. 0.5826). After the acceptance of equality of the variances (Levene's test p-value is 0.228), the nix hypothesis of equality of the two ways of male and female employee PDM is rejected (p-value = 0.000). Therefore, female employees have lower direct PDM than male employees (the confidence interval for the deviation between females and males ranges from -0.037 to -0.022). This result supports hypothesis H2, which predicts a lower straight PDM from women employees. Concerning the values of PSS, female employees perceive greater back up from her supervisor (0.6847), on boilerplate, than men (0.6785). In this case, the t-examination ratifies this difference (p-value 0.007) under the assumption of inequality of the variances (Levene'due south test p-value 0.000). Therefore, if women participate less only perceive greater back up from their supervisor, the college PSS perceived by female person employees does not always interpret into higher direct PDM. This event highlights the need to delve into the relationship between PSS, PDM and gender through regression analysis.

When the gender of managers is analyzed without consider the gender of the employees (see Table three) direct employee PDM is slightly greater for those cases managed past women, just the difference is non significant (hypothesis H3 is not supported by data). According to PSS, information technology was significantly greater for employees with female managers.

Table three. Descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing according to the gender of managers.

In order to clarify the influence of the interaction betwixt the genders of both, managers and employees, in PDM, a t-test for independent samples was carried out because all the possible gender combinations (Table 4). All the differences on PDM means were meaning, except that regarding female person employees managed by men and those managed by women (perhaps due to the smaller sample size of the group representing female director-female employee). This analysis ratified the college participation of men employees and the greater PDM mean for those employees (male and female) managed past women.

Tabular array 4. t-test of differences between PDM means according to gender dyad composition.

Therefore, straight employee PDM (dependent variable) is different co-ordinate to the gender of both employees and managers. This result justifies the inclusion of gender as a control variable that influences the relationship between PDM and PSS.

Moreover, a correlation analysis was analyzed to justify the inclusion of the contained variables in the regression model (see Table 5) as well as to detect if there is a problem of multicollinearity. The results indicate that all the correlation coefficients are significant. Direct employee PDM is positively correlated with PSS. On the contrary, PDM was negatively correlated with national cultural values. In this way, the larger the power altitude level of the country where the company is located, the less direct employee PDM. A similar trend exists for the masculinity dimension: the more than masculine the land, the less straight employee PDM. The correlation betwixt the independent variables is low (near 0), so it seems at that place is not a problem of multicollinearity (low values of VIF ratify this fact after with the regression model).

Tabular array 5. Linear correlation coefficients between PDM and the explanatory variables.

To study in deep the influence of the gender combination (manager-employee) in the linear relation betwixt PSS and PDM, an analysis of linear correlation coefficient was fabricated for each subgroup. Then a hypothesis exam about the difference of these coefficients was carried out using Fisher's Z transformation in order to detect if these differences were significant or not (Table 6). Results showed significant differences in the strength of the association between PDM and PSS because of the gender combination (manager-employee). Concretely, the strongest relationship happens between male managers and female employees. That if the directly clan between the PSS and PDM is highest when a female employee perceived the back up of her male manager.

Tabular array vi. Hypothesis test about the divergence betwixt linear correlation coefficients of PDM and PSS according to gender dyad composition (Fisher'southward Z transformation).

Results

As the predictor variables are at 2 dissimilar hierarchical levels (PSS at the employee level, and the national culture indexes at the state level), HLM was applied to clarify variance in direct employee PDM using the whole sample (see Table 7 Model 1). Due to the interest in analyzing the influence of gender in the relationship studied, and after detecting differences in the linear association betwixt PSS and PDM variables co-ordinate to the gender dyad composition, the regression model was practical over different subsamples. Concretely, Models 2 and 5 are associated with those samples with female person and male managers, respectively (without distinguishing the gender of the employees). Models iii and 4 are related to the female person manager sample, but separated by the gender of the employees. The same occurs with models 6 and 7, only in this case for the sample of male person managers.

Table 7. Results of the hierarchical regression models: directly employee participation (Standardized β-values).

The standardized values of the regression coefficients (showed in Table 7) suggest that all predictors are meaning.

As expected in Hypothesis 1, and according to the correlation coefficient previously computed (Table v), PSS is positively related to direct employee PDM. Moreover, the findings advise once more that PSS (Model 7: β = 0.474^∗∗∗) has a college touch on on employee participation when male managers address female employees. The divergence between this coefficient and the rest of the cases would be significant according to the results of the hypothesis test of the deviation between correlations coefficients previously made (Table six). In this sense, Hypothesis 4 is supported, due to PSS having a different bear on on direct employee PDM co-ordinate to the managing director-employee gender dyads. Regarding cultural values, both power distance and masculinity have a significant negative relationship with each effect variable. Thus, in organizations located in countries with a high level of masculinity and power altitude, participation is less promoted. These 2 results reinforce strong support for Hypothesis five and half-dozen. However, masculinity (Model 3: β = -0.38) loses significance when women assume a management position. Regarding the moderating effect, Hypothesis 8 is supported. The interaction between PSS and masculinity has a significant and positive relation with PDM, which means PSS balances the negative influence of masculinity over PDM (Model ane: β = 0.021^∗∗; Model 2: β = 0.023^∗; Model iv: β = 0.026^∗; Model 5: β = 0.019^∗∗); however, it has no significant relationship when the director is male. Thus, PSS moderates masculinity level in organizations where managers are women.

In addition, PSS has a low moderating event in ability altitude in the general model (β = 0.12^∗), and loses significance in the gender nomenclature (Model two: β = 0.020; Model three: β = -0.007; Model 5: β = 0.007; Model six: β = 0.002; Model seven: β = 0.017). The moderating upshot of PSS over power distance means Hypothesis 7 is not totally support. But when female managers pb female person employees is the moderating event significant. The human relationship betwixt the analyzed variables and the tested hypothesis are included in Figure ane.

Effigy 1. Relations between variables and hypothesis.

In order to deepen the analysis by countries, a ranking was made co-ordinate to their average values in direct employee PDM. This classification was compared with the ranking of countries according to their cultural values (run across Table 8). This analysis ratifies that those countries with the highest values in direct employee PDM (showtime positions in this ranking) such as Finland, Denmark, Kingdom of norway, Ireland, and Netherlands, take also the lowest rates of masculinity and power distance (the last positions in these rankings). On the contrary, information technology observes that countries such as Espana, Portugal, Greece, Italy, and Oriental countries (Bulgaria, Slovakia, or Republic of lithuania) nowadays low values in terms of participation, and are featured past high levels of power altitude and masculinity.

Tabular array eight. Ranking of countries according to their straight employee PDM (boilerplate) and cultural values.

Discussion and Conclusion

This research pursued a double objective. On the i hand, to know the level of directly participation in decision-making past employees in European companies, in the current flow (second decade of the 21st century). On the other hand, to further clarify the debate on the effect of PSS in the aforementioned participation, likewise equally the issue of national cultural values and the gender of both managers and employees in such a relationship.

Concerning the first objective, the study reveals that currently, in the European context, the number of women in management positions is however considerably lower than that of men. In addition, direct participation in decision-making is also lower in the case of women. Therefore, we can assert that today, in the European company, women are still in a situation of inequality with respect to men in terms of participation in decision-making and in the operation of leadership positions.

Regarding the second purpose, the research shows that PSS has a direct human relationship with employee PDM, whereas cultural dimensions such as masculinity and power distance accept a negative effect. Additionally, the current study confirms that the gender of managers affects straight employee PDM in different means based on the gender of the employee. Concretely, straight employee PDM is, on average, greater in the case of female managers, especially with male employees (the higher PDM of women employee managed by women managers was non significant, perhaps due to the smaller proportion of this subset in the whole sample) but the difference is not significant. It has been found, that PSS has a greater influence on directly PDM when the director is a man and the employee is a woman. Therefore, when a male person manager gives his support to a female employee, this back up is transformed into a higher PDM than in other gender combinations.

It has also been plant that female managers tend to mitigate the issue of the masculinity of the land where the organization is located.

Previous researchers suggest that a participative surround can enhance employees' job satisfaction, commitment, motivation and productivity (Zhu et al., 2015; Goñi-Legaz and Ollo-López, 2017). Managers contribute to a participative environment by promoting collaboration among employees. For this reason, managers play a crucial role in motivating employees to participate in PDM. Consequent with this, the cultural values of the countries where organizations are located bear upon direct employee PDM (Sagie and Aycan, 2003).

In full general, all hypotheses were supported. Consistent with previous research, PSS plays a crucial role every bit a promoter of employee participation in organizations. These results lend further support to the notion that employees experience supported by managers when they encourage them to participate in the controlling process (Wayne et al., 2002; Torka et al., 2010; Park, 2015). Evidence from this report confirms that the so-called dyad gender composition of both managers and employees has an consequence on participation (Ayman et al., 2009). This study reinforces the results of previous findings: men and women have significantly different orientations leading to gender differences in the effects of participation initiatives (Olorunsola and Olayemi, 2011; Miller, 2012; Gallie, 2013; Sarafidou and Chatziioannidis, 2013). In this respect, male supervisor back up has a positive and high influence when dealing with female employees. And this is one of the main findings of this research.

Women in management position are also more supportive in organizations located in countries where the masculinity value is predominating; they are considered agents of change for gender integration (Ranganathan, 2016). In other words, the PSS provided past female managers influences positively in the PDM, overall in countries with loftier level of masculinity, This constitutes another important contribution of the present study.

Previous studies proved that PSS delivered more quality service in cultures with traditionally loftier power distance (Ghosh, 2011). Withal, contrary to the prediction, at that place was no pregnant bear upon of supervisor back up as a moderator for power altitude, unless female managers lead female employees. In this situation, in organizations located in countries featuring a higher ability distance, female person managers tend to mitigate the effect.

Based on these findings, it tin can exist concluded that gender differentiation is a crucial feature in the analysis of participation in Europe organizations.

Limitations and Future Research

Although previous studies indicated that gender diversity and a counterbalanced number of women and men in PDM can lead to positive outcomes in the organization, inequalities between gender in PDM remain a large business organisation and an unresolved problem in most companies around the world due to the huge gap between the number of women and men in PDM positions. This could be precisely the cause of ane limitation of this study, the smaller sample of female person managers in comparison to that of male managers. This could affect the capacity to generalize some of the findings. Additionally, the cases of female person employees leaded past female person managers are astonishingly lower in comparison with those leaded by male managers. This makes difficult the comparing of the results for both groups.

Another weakness of this written report is that it is based solely on the perceptions of the workers, so it would exist advisable to accept into business relationship the opinion of the managers and compare the results.

In future research, it would exist interesting to analyze in more depth the difference by countries in direct employee PDM equally well as the influence of other cultural dimensions proposed past Hofstede not included at this written report.

Finally, information technology is necessary to highlight that right now, this newspaper has an extraordinary opportunity to promote the role of women in the economic sphere, which is indispensable to entails fostering gender equality in education, employment and leadership positions, so we should take advantage of the moment.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and canonical it for publication.

Funding

Fiscal support from Spain's Economy, Industry and Competitiveness National Department (Projects: ECO2016-75655-P, ECO2016-80518-R, and TIN2017-85887-C2-1-P B) is gratefully acknowledged.

Conflict of Involvement Argument

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes

1. ^Visit https://world wide web.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/ for further details about index

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